A waste producer must have a valid waste consignment permit (CP) and a consignment note (CN) during transfer in order to dispose of/transport his waste as per legal obligations of Regulation 14 of The Waste Regulations, S.L. 549.63. These Notes must accompany waste, which consists of hazardous or non-hazardous waste. This procedure is also applied for disposal of waste at sea.
All CPs and CNs have a unique number/code allocated by the Competent Authority. The CP is used in order to obtain a permit for the disposal of waste while the CN must be used for the transfer of waste.
Terms and Definitions
Consignor is the person who asks for the waste to be removed from the place where it is being held
Carrier is the person who transfers the waste from one place to another & should be registered with ERA.
Consignee is the person to whom the waste is being transferred.
Carrier’s round is a journey made by the carrier during which more than one consignment of waste is collected and all consignments are taken to the same consignee. To be treated as a carrier’s round under these regulations the round must be completed within 24 hours.
Succession is a procedure for the movement of waste of the same description from the same premises and consignor, going to the same consignee and premises (apply also to both single loads and to carrier’s rounds). A CN should cover all consignment, which occurs during the validation of the permit (refer to the permit).
The Consignment Permit procedure is divided into two stages:
For the transfer of waste within the Maltese Islands, the waste generator should apply with the Competent Authority using the CP application that can be accessed from the following link: e-Forms. Details in Section A (Consignment Details), Section B (Description of the Waste), Section C (Carrier’s Details), Section D (Consignor’s Details) and Section E (Consignee’s Declaration) should be filled in appropriately by the applicant.
No fees are currently applicable for CPs
Step 2
The applicant should contact the Waste Management Facility to make the necessary logistical arrangements for the delivery of waste. The Waste Management Facility should inform the Competent Authority of its intention, whether they will be accepting the waste or not.
The application will be processed within 10 working days. Once the CP is ready, the original copy will be sent to the permit holder on the postal address/ email indicated on the application.
For further information, please send an e-mail on [email protected].
For further information about the Consignment Notes, please press here.
“Land degradation” is the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of cropland, pasture, forest and woodlands. This may result from a combination of land uses and processes, including those arising from human activities and habitation patterns. Land degradation may take the form of
soil erosion caused by wind and/or water;
deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and
long-term loss of natural vegetation.
Land degradation is commonly caused by the mismanagement or over-exploitation of land resources.
Land degradation is a major global environmental issue of this century because of its adverse impact on agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effect on food security and the quality of life. Land degradation is happening at an alarming pace and is affecting regions inhabited by over one-third of the global population. This phenomenon contributes to a dramatic decline in the productivity of croplands and rangelands worldwide, thereby, threatening food security and environmental quality.
Drivers of Land Degradation
Three broad, inter-related groups of factors drive land degradation: biophysical factors that determine how land is used; institutional factors that govern broader land use policies; and socioeconomic factors that affect the demand for and management of land.
In general, land use change that results in land degradation is driven by multiple, interacting elements, from the local to the global scales. Over the coming decades, a decrease in the availability of productive land will be compounded by competition between land uses. Global estimates of the amount of degraded land vary widely, from 1 billion to 6 billion hectares, which illustrates both the scale of the problem and the need for more accurate data. The critical drivers include: agriculture and forestry; urbanization; and mining and quarrying.
Agriculture is by far the largest human use of land, covering roughly 38 per cent of land surface, not including Greenland and Antarctica. The area used for agriculture is still expanding, currently at the expense of natural forests and grasslands. Although the net area devoted to agriculture continues to expand, this expansion masks the loss of land due to agricultural land degradation and abandonment that results from soil loss, erosion, nutrient depletion, and salinization. Soil degradation is a key factor undermining food security. Soils can be degraded over time either qualitatively (e.g., salinization) and quantitatively (e.g., erosion). There are several major types of soil degradation processes.
The share of the global population expected to live in cities is projected to grow by around 2.5 billion people by 2050. Such growth often results in urban sprawl, with built-up land spilling over in some cases onto fertile soils and farmland, resulting in a permanent loss of arable land. Globally, about 2-3 per cent of the land area is currently urbanized; this is expected to increase to 4-5 per cent by 2050. Built-up areas in developing country cities, meanwhile, are projected to increase threefold by 2030. Urbanization is projected to cause the loss of between 1.6 and 3.3 million hectares of prime agricultural land per year in the period between 2000 and 2030. In addition to using land directly (“land take”), urban populations have a footprint that spreads far beyond the boundaries of the city. Tropical deforestation has, for instance, been positively correlated with urban population growth and agricultural exports.
Drivers of land degradation in Malta
Agricultural land covers 48% of the Maltese islands and is its predominant land use. In 2011, the primary productive agriculture and fisheries sectors produced 1.8% of the National gross domestic product (GDP) and in 2010 the agricultural sector employed 10.6% of the financially active Maltese population. Agriculture is therefore a key economic production centre and plays a key role in Malta’s long-term food-provision and food security.
Agricultural practices have a significant impact on an area’s susceptibility to land degradation. Appropriate management may sustain key ecosystem services and agricultural productivity. On the contrary, inadequate measures may degrade natural resources and reduce crop yields. The Maltese agricultural sector faces significant economic, social and physical challenges that limit agricultural revenue. Such challenges include the relatively small agricultural parcel sizes (an issue exacerbated by land fragmentation) and poor soil quality.
In marginally profitable or entirely uneconomic situations agricultural land is abandoned. In Malta, such scenarios are common in valley margin terraced slopes. These areas require regular maintenance of rubble walls, are difficult to access and are of small size. In Malta, significant expanses of sloping valley margins were reclaimed for agricultural use. The creation of valley margin terraced slopes involved the use of rubble material for levelling, infilling with soil and the construction of rubble walls to retain soil. The resulting anthropogenic landscape may be maintained under continued agricultural management. However, abandoned terraced fields do not receive the required rubble wall maintenance and consequently soils retained by these structures are rapidly eroded, transported and deposited downslope. This dynamic is eroding the thin soils artificially deposited in the flanks of valleys, and over time reducing the agricultural capacity of such areas. The last, also demonstrates the importance and need for continued agricultural land management.
Calculated National annual soil loss using the revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (rUSLE) indicates that 61.01km2, 19:33% of total National land area, are at risk of moderate to severe soil erosion. Maltese central and north-eastern areas show the lowest erosion risk. These areas are characterised by relatively flat topographies, good land management and erosion control measures. Maltese north-western and Gozitan areas are characterised by a large range in erosion rates. Within this area, low erosion risk occurs in plateaus comprising low topographic gradients, and the application of good land management and erosion control measures. Plateau flanks typically consist of exceptionally high erosion rates, characterised by high topographic gradients, inappropriate cultivation practices and poor erosion control measures. Steeply inclined plateau flanks demonstrating low erosion risk are associated with areas demonstrating adequate vegetation cover, and effective management and conservation practices.
Average annual soil loss (t ha-1 yr-1) in the Maltese Islands following RUSLE equation (Sultana, 2015)
Numerically modelled soil erosion volumes in Maltese agricultural areas were estimated at 766.278 m3/yr costing 7.98M€/yr to replace, as derived from a study applying GIS numerical modelling approach. The model calculates that the average owner incurs 1170€/0.01 km2/yr on soil replacement and soil improvement requirements. With an average yearly economic revenue of 1720€/0.01 km2/yr, this cost benefit imbalance may force agricultural land owners to not replace eroded soils. Over time, as a result of soil erosion, an increasingly large proportion of agricultural land may no longer suitable for agricultural purposes. Over 50 years, 1.53 km2 (0.5% of Maltese area) of agricultural land may be depleted of soil, incurring an average national agricultural revenue loss of 0.26 M€ per year. Soil erosion rates, and associated economic implications, may be mitigated with cost effective management practices. Two such practices include conservation tillage, which offers various economic advantages to farmers, and the restoration of breaches in slope-facing rubble walls in areas subject to soil erosion. The latter may require an investment of 11.94M€ at the National scale or 1,600€ by the average agricultural landowner. Both measures contribute towards the sustainable use of Maltese agricultural areas and maintaining key associated ecosystems services.
50 Year
% soil depth removed
Area (km2)
0 – 10%
41.32
10 – 20%
17.19
20 – 30 %
6.66
30 – 40%
3.20
40 – 50%
1.81
50 – 60%
1.14
60 – 70%
0.74
70 – 80%
0.52
80 – 90%
0.42
90 – 94%
0.10
95%+
1.53
% MT agric. area lost
0.5
100 Year
% soil depth removed
Area (km2)
0 – 10%
19.62
10 – 20%
21.75
20 – 30 %
10.83
30 – 40%
6.35
40 – 50%
3.97
50 – 60%
2.67
60 – 70%
1.97
70 – 80%
1.23
80 – 90%
1.05
90 – 94%
0.29
95%+
4.90
% MT agric. area lost
1.6
500 Year
% soil depth removed
Area (km2)
0 – 10%
0.10
10 – 20%
1.82
20 – 30 %
5.19
30 – 40%
6.10
40 – 50%
6.41
50 – 60%
5.58
60 – 70%
5.02
70 – 80%
4.34
80 – 90%
3.43
90 – 94%
1.36
95%+
35.28
% MT agric. area lost
11.2
50, 100, 500 year (top to bottom) erosion maps showing % (of total) soil depth eroded. Area in black marks agricultural land with 95% + soil eroded; considered as containing insufficient soil depth to support agricultural practices. Tables to the right of images indicate the total National land area affected by the soil loss percentage category (Sultana, 2016).
Not all Maltese agricultural areas undertake the same erosion risk. Maltese central, south-eastern and north-eastern agricultural areas demonstrate the lowest risk of erosion. These areas are characterised by relatively flat topographies and adequately maintained soil erosion structures. The Maltese north-western and Gozitan areas are most susceptible to soil erosion. These zones are characterised by a large range in erosion rates. Within the area, low erosion risk occurs in plateaus comprising low topographic gradients. Plateau flanks and valley sides typically demonstrate exceptionally high erosion rates and are characterised by high topographic gradients, inadequate cultivation practices and poor erosion control measures.
Maltese agricultural land is subject to various socioeconomic conditions that constrain net farm income. As a consequence a number of agricultural areas, once financially viable, are now less so. Having lost their economic potential, marginally profitable agricultural areas were abandoned. In Malta, such areas are common in valley margin terraced slopes which contain soil retaining rubble walls. These structures require regular maintenance, which is no longer carried out when agricultural land is abandoned. As soil retaining rubble walls on sloping surfaces gradually deteriorate, they are breached and gravitational processes rapidly transport the retained soils downslope to more stable areas.
To ensure continued sustainable agricultural land use, eroded soils need to be replaced. This process increases farming costs and reduces net agricultural earnings. In addition to soil replenishment, soil erosion degrades the remaining in situ soil requiring the addition of chemical soil supplements to maintain crop yields. These costs are termed on-site costs. As a consequence of the above interacting factors, soil erosion has been identified as a prevailing land degradation process that poses a significant threat to continued agricultural land use.
Soil erosion rates, and associated economic implications, can be mitigated with cost effective agricultural cover and management practices. Soil conservation practices may be cheaper to set up and maintain than the continuous replacement of eroded soils. This approach increases the economic viability of agricultural exploits within areas subject to soil erosion and ensures sustainable, continued, use of such areas. Two cost-effective agricultural management methods in particular can reduce soil erosion, maintain soil quality and preserve agriculture associated ecosystem services. The first, conservation tillage and no-till farming techniques, seek to minimise soil disruption and retain at least 30% of the previous crop residues. This process protects soil from erosion and promotes soil productivity and also provides farmers with various direct economic incentives. The second is the restoration and maintenance of soil retaining rubble walls.
The five Formations of strata that make up the surface rock of the Maltese Islands originally formed as carbonate sediments deposited on the sea bed of the Pelagian Spur during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (from about 30 to 5 million yeas age). The area where the Maltese Islands would subsequently appear was positioned some distance from land. For this reason, sediments that accumulated during the Oligocene and Miocene were made up almost entirely of material formed in the sea itself, largely consisting of skeletal remains of the animals and plants. The Maltese Islands emerged above sea level during the Quaternary and terrestrial deposits occasionally accumulated.
Surface Geological Layer Sequence
The rock layers making up the surface geology, consist of five main Formation laid one on top of the other in a layer-cake sequence. The constituents and depositional environments of these Formations are described below.
Lower Coralline Limestone is the oldest exposed rock in the Maltese Islands.
The Formation forms steep sided cliffs in the western coastal areas of the Maltese Islands. It is mainly composed of the tests of coralline algae suggesting deposition in a shallow gulf environment. Younger beds show evidence of deposition in more open marine conditions. Benthic foraminifera (fossils of organisms that live near the seabed) are frequent. Some characteristic fossils found, include Large Archaeolithothamnium coralline algal rhodoliths, locally associated with strombid gastropods and bryozoa. Also Scutella echinoids form charasteristic beds in some regions and Terebratula brachiopods are also found.
The Formation is further divided into 4 members, namely (from bottom to top), the Magħlaq, Attard, Xlendi and Il-Mara Members, named after the region that are mostly exposed.
The Formation is important as it holds fresh water reserves and has economic value for the construction industry.
Globigerina Limestone is the second oldest rock, outcropping over approximately 70% of the area of the islands, eroding to give a broad, gently rolling landscape. This rock consists of yellow to pale-grey limestones comprising tests of planktonic globigerinid foraminifera (deposited in deeper waters than the underlying Lower Coralline Limestone). Variations in the thickness of this Formation are considerable, ranging from 23m near Fort Chambray, Gozo to 207m around Marsaxlokk, Malta.
The Formation is further divided into Lower, Middle and Upper Globigerina Limestone members by two beds of phosphorite pebbles.
This Formation provides the building stone (named “franka” in Maltese) with which many Maltese buildings are made and which was also exported to be used for the same purpose.
Blue Clay overlies the Globigerina Limestone Formation. It erodes easily when wet and forms taluses which flow out over the underlying rock. Deposition of the Blue Clay may have occurred in an open muddy water environment with water depths up to 150m for the lower part of the Formation. Blue clay mainly consists of fine lime grains and kaolinite, a clay mineral, which make the layer compact when dry and plastic upon wetting by water. The plastic characteristics of clay makes it unstable. Variations in thickness are considerable ranging from 75m at Xaghra, Gozo to nil in eastern Malta, where Upper Coralline Limestone rests directly on Globigerina Limestone. Foraminifera are abundant throughout, with species of Globigerina and Orbulina being the most common. The remains of marine vertebrates, including Phoca, dugongs, and many fish, are also present. Also Goethite (an iron-bearing hydroxide mineral) concretions are common in the upper beds of North West Malta.
The impermeability (restricts water flow through) of the Blue Clay is crucial for the development of the preced aquifers and it acts as a trap for freshwater.
Greensand consists of bioclastic limestones rich in glauconite deposited in a warm sea. Unweathered sections are green but are oxidised to an orange colour when exposed. The deposit is much thinner than the other four Formations, it attains a maximum thickness of 11m in localized depressions at Il-Gelmus in Gozo, but elsewhere is less than 1m thick. Indigenous faunas are sparse but include Clypeaster echinoids, bivalves and local Heterostegina. Reworked moulds and casts of a diverse older Miocene marine fauna are locally common but are phosphatised or glauconitized.
Upper Coralline Limestone is the youngest Tertiary Formation in the islands reaching a thickness of approximately 160m in the Bingemma area, Malta. It resembles the Lower Coralline Limestone both chemically and palaeontologically, indicating deposition in shallow waters. The transition from the underlying greensands is gradual, sometimes merging into red and black granular sandstone, or red and white coralline rich limestone, which passes into a white calcareous sandstone-compact, soft or porous but always rich in organic remains. Though some layers are completely crystalline and have lost traces of the organisms from which they originated, other portions are highly fossiliferous containing casts of shells and other organisms.
Quaternary deposits
The five Formations are sporadically overlain by terrestrial, aeolian and alluvial deposits laid down following the emergence of the Maltese Islands above sea level during the Quaternary. Studies of Quaternary deposits recognize the following sediments, tufas; slope deposits; fluvial deposits; palaeosoils; coastal deposits; aeolian silts; and cave, fissure and doline deposits.
The term “land” is used to describe the terrestrial bio-productive system that comprises soil, vegetation, other biota, and the ecological and hydrological processes that operate within the system.
Desertification is a type of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Land degradation is the reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and long-term loss of natural vegetation.
Land degradation is a major global environmental issue of this century because of its adverse impact on agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effect on food security and the quality of life. Land degradation is happening at an alarming pace and is affecting regions inhabited by over one-third of the global population. This phenomenon contributes to a dramatic decline in the productivity of croplands and rangelands worldwide, thereby, threatening food security and environmental quality.
Desertification and the Institutional Context to Combat Desertification
Considering the significance and the severity of desertification, it was clear that international actions needed to be taken before it was too late. At the 1992 Earth Summit, the international community adopted Agenda 21, an unprecedented global plan of action for sustainable development. The three Rio Conventions— Convention on Biodiversity (UNCBD), Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)—derive directly from the 1992 Earth Summit. Each convention represents a way of contributing to the sustainable development goals of Agenda 21. The three conventions are intrinsically linked, operating in the same ecosystems and addressing interdependent issues.
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
The UNCCD aims to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought. This shall be done through effective actions at all levels, supported by international co-operation and partnership arrangements. These actions shall be taken within the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievements of sustainable development in affected areas. In particular, the 2018-2030 UNCCD Strategy will contribute to:
achieving the objectives of the Convention and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, in particular regarding Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 and target 15.3: “ by 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil ,including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world” and other interrelated SDGs, within the scope of the Convention;
improving the living conditions of affected populations; and
enhancing ecosystems services.
Credit: Global NGO Impact News
The UNCCD benefits from universal membership and is increasingly recognized as an instrument which can make a lasting contribution to the achievement of sustainable development and poverty reduction globally.
Malta National Action Programme
Addressing desertification, land degradation and drought (DLDD) requires long-term integrated strategies that focus simultaneously on the improved productivity of land and the rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources. The UNCCD can play a central role in addressing DLDD issues, in part, through National action programmes (NAP).
NAP are the key instruments to implement the UNCCD. The NAPs are developed through a participatory approach involving various stakeholders, including relevant governmental offices, scientific institutions and local communities. They spell out the practical steps and measures to be taken to combat desertification in specific ecosystems.
The Environment and Resources Authority (ERA) is preparing a “National Action Plan on Desertification and Land Degradation in the Maltese Islands”, in line with the UNCCD Article 10, as adopted by the Government of Malta in terms of Article 51 of the Environment Protection Act (Cap. 549).
The purpose of NAP is to identify the factors contributing to desertification and practical measures necessary to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought. The NAP shall specify the respective roles of government, local communities and land users and the resources available and needed. They shall, inter alia: (a)
incorporate long-term strategies to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought,
emphasize implementation and be integrated with national policies for sustainable development;
give particular attention to the implementation of preventive measures for lands that are not yet degraded or which are only slightly degraded;
require regular review of, and progress reports on, their implementation.
The Malta NAP is currently divided into three themes that broadly relate to national land use: urban/sub-urban, natural/semi-nature and agriculture. Each theme is further subdivided into three sub-sections:
Targets: are quantitative and qualitative targets that aim to realise the strategic objectives of the UNCCD and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, in particular regarding Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 and target 15.3,
Methods/measures: describe actions to achieve the targets, and
Indicators: monitor the extent to which methods/measures achieve the target.
“Drought” is a naturally occurring phenomenon that occurs when precipitation is significantly below normal recorded levels, causing serious hydrological imbalances that adversely affect land resource production systems. Drought can be categorized as meteorological, hydrological, agricultural, and socioeconomic. The first three approaches deal with ways to measure drought as a physical phenomenon. The last deals with drought in terms of supply and demand, tracking the effects of water shortfall as it ripples through socioeconomic systems.
Drought is a complex and slowly encroaching natural hazard with significant and pervasive socio-economic and environmental impacts. The impacts of drought are long lasting and socio-economic factors tend to aggravate the effects of drought. Drought is known to cause the most deaths and displacement of people than any other natural disaster.
Water scarcity is one of the greatest challenges of the twenty first century. A 50% increase in the demand for water is expected by the end of 2050. With increasing population growth, especially in developing dryland areas, more and more people become dependent on fresh water supplies in lands that are degrading. Drought and water scarcity are considered to be the most important of all natural disasters, causing both at the short and long-term economic and ecological losses as well as significant secondary and tertiary impacts.
Drought preparedness is crucial to mitigate the impacts drought may have. Appropriate planning must be carried out to efficiently develop remedies for drought. Solutions should both respond to human needs, involving stakeholders where necessary, and preserve environmental quality.
Methods that help to avoid the consequences of drought, include:
Early Warning Systems (EWS): Declaring a drought too late can have a devastating impact on lives and livelihoods. EWS can guide affected countries by providing timely information that can be used to reduce drought-related risks and to better prepare an effective response.
Vulnerability and risk assessment: Actions to protect the most vulnerable to drought is prerequisite for EWS to work. Social, economic, and environmental factors need to be taken into account in order to assess the vulnerability. It is important to combine better forecasts with detailed knowledge on how landscapes and societies respond to a lack of rain and water, and turn that knowledge into early intervention.
Drought risk mitigation measures: Proactive drought risk management could save lives and the livelihoods of millions of people. For example, the development of sustainable irrigation schemes for crops and livestock or water harvesting schemes could boost the recycling and reuse of water, explore the cultivation of more drought tolerant crops, expand crop insurance schemes and establish of alternative livelihoods that can provide income in drought-prone areas.
Malta and Drought
Malta has no large and permanent river systems. Inland surface water systems are small and linked to the dynamics of several dry river valleys, locally called widien and their associated catchments. Given their small size, the Maltese islands were integrated into one water catchment district under Article 3 of the EU Water Framework Directive. This water catchment district consists of all hydrological sub-catchments, coastal waters up to one nautical mile from the baseline and all groundwaters.
With a limited volume of freshwater resources and a population of approximately 434,000, Malta ranks highest in the list of European countries most heavily affected by water scarcity and in the top 10 most water-stressed countries globally.
In addition to the constraints of a relatively limited volume of freshwater, the Maltese freshwater resources also face significant risks relating to its quality. Groundwater quality is reportedly deteriorating, chiefly as a result of nitrate leaching. Excluding aquifer recharge, the levels of water abstraction are reportedly 50% higher than required levels for sustainable management. Another threat impacting on groundwater resources is saline intrusion. Groundwater quality has deteriorated and there might be in the future, implications for its suitability for irrigation. Saline intrusion is an important issue as irrigation with brackish water can have major implications for the quality and quantity of agricultural yields. Also, in the longer term could have detrimental effects on the quality and sustainability of agricultural soils.
Climate change is also expected to exacerbate drought and the related water risks in Malta. Climate projections for the region for the end of the 21st century show precipitation decreases of between 5% and 15% and between 20% to more than 25% for the stabilization and high-end climate (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) scenarios. In addition, concentration of rainfall to fewer higher intensity events is expected. These new climate patterns are expected to further compound drought and water availability issues.
For agriculture, climate change is expected to impact directly the Mediterranean region, causing decreases in crop yield, increased risks of crop failure and increases in irrigation demand. Growing seasons are expected to shorten while plant heat stress during vital periods of crop development will increase. Moreover, the higher intensity rainfall events during the sowing period may also increase the risks linked to soil erosion and flash flooding.
A number of actions must to be taken in Malta to tackle drought issues including the reduction of over-abstraction and the introduction of more efficient irrigation techniques. These actions are of utmost importance as groundwater is vital for supporting various economic sectors (including agricultural production), food security and rural livelihoods. Priority actions relating to better management of water need to reflect both the environmental and economical pillars. Such an approach is fundamental to the successful implementation a strategy that mitigates the risks of drought.
Landscape
“Landscape” means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factor. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity.
European Landscape Convention – Council of Europe
The European Landscape Convention (ELC), also known as the Florence Convention, was adopted in Strasbourg by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 19 July 2000 and was opened for signature in Florence in October 2000. As of 10th October 2022, 40 countries have ratified the Convention, Malta has signed the Convention on 20th October 2000, and has not yet ratified.
The main objectives of the ELC are to promote landscape protection, management and planning, and to organise co-operation on landscape issues between Parties to the Convention. The Convention applies to the entire territory of the Parties and covers all landscapes, natural, rural, urban and peri-urban areas, whether on land, inland water or marine areas. It concerns not just remarkable landscapes but also ordinary everyday landscapes and degraded areas.
The Protocol amending the ELC was concluded in 2016 and is open for ratification, acceptance or approval by the Parties to the Convention. The amendment caters for the promotion of European co-operation with non-European States who wish to implement the provisions of the Convention, it does not affect the substance of the Convention and State Party obligations therein.
The preamble of the Convention states that: ‘The landscape has an important public interest role in the cultural, ecological, environmental and social fields, and constitutes a resource favourable to economic activity and whose protection, management and planning can contribute to job creation; contributes to the formation of local cultures and is a basic component of the European natural and cultural heritage, contributing to human well-being and consolidation of the European identity’. The landscape, and its protection and sustainable management, thus contributes to quality of life.
Besides the environmental, economical and social benefits that the implementation of the Convention will bring, it will also indirectly help Malta achieve its national and EU objectives in relation to environmental protection. Green Infrastructure and landscape planning is viewed as being one of the main tools to tackle threats on biodiversity resulting from habitat fragmentation, land use change and loss of habitats. It is also regarded as a tool for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
The ELC specifically requires Parties to undertake the following obligations:
To recognise landscapes in law as an essential component of people’s surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural and natural heritage, and a foundation of their identity;
To identify and assess landscape and define landscape quality objectives for the landscapes identified and assessed after public consultation;
To establish and implement landscape policies aimed at landscape protection, management and planning through the adoption of the specific measures and instruments;
To establish procedures for the participation of the general public and stakeholders with an interest in the definition and implementation of the landscape policies;
To increase awareness, training and education of the value and role of landscapes, their appraisal and management, and changes to them;
To integrate landscape into its regional and town planning policies and in its cultural, environmental, agricultural, social and economic policies, as well as in any other policies with possible direct or indirect impact on landscape.
The Council of Europe intergovernmental committees supervise the Convention’s implementation. The Convention also provides for a Council of Europe Landscape award, to be given to local or regional authorities or an NGO which introduced exemplary and long-lasting policies or measures to protect, manage and plan landscapes.
At national level, the main provisions of the ELC are addressed through Maltese planning and environmental legislation (particularly in the Development Planning Act, Environment Protection Act, Cultural Heritage Act, as well as the Local Plans).
The Maltese Islands consist of an archipelago of three main inhabited islands and a number of smaller uninhabited ones, which lie roughly at the centre of the Mediterranean Sea. The islands cover a total area of 316 square kilometres.
The Maltese geology consists of rock layers with varying hardness and subsequent tectonic processes have affect their weathering. These factors have had a marked effect on the Island’s geomorphology and produced a remarkable variety of landscapes.
Landscapes are areas, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factor. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation and human elements including different forms of land use. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity.
The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people’s lives. The European Landscape Convention (ELC), also known as the Florence Convention, was adopted in Strasbourg by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 19 July 2000 and was opened for signature in Florence in October 2000.
European Landscape Convention – Council of Europe
The main objectives of the European Landscape Convention (ELC) are to promote landscape protection, management and planning, and to organise co-operation on landscape issues between Parties to the Convention. The Convention applies to the entire territory of the Parties and covers all landscapes, natural, rural, urban and peri-urban areas, whether on land, inland water or marine areas. It concerns not just remarkable landscapes but also ordinary everyday landscapes and degraded areas.
The preamble of the Convention states that: ‘The landscape has an important public interest role in the cultural, ecological, environmental and social fields, and constitutes a resource favourable to economic activity and whose protection, management and planning can contribute to job creation; contributes to the formation of local cultures and is a basic component of the European natural and cultural heritage, contributing to human well-being and consolidation of the European identity’. The landscape, and its protection and sustainable management, thus contributes to quality of life.
Particularly for a small and densely populated country such as Malta, it is crucial improve the protection of the landscape and increase the public’s awareness about its importance. Implementing ELC would assist in achieving these objectives, and would ultimately result in improving people’s quality of life, and have multiplier effects in other sectors. Thus, the implementation of the ELC in Malta has environmental, economic and social benefits.
At national level, the main provisions of the ELC are already partially covered from existing regulations of the Maltese planning and environmental legislation (particularly in the Development Planning Act, Environment Protection Act, Cultural Heritage Act, as well as the Local Plans). However, additional legislation is needed to specifically recognise landscapes in law and provide for the designation of competencies, criteria for the assessment of landscapes and the identification of landscapes of particular importance. Furthermore, areas exhibiting features of landscape value would need to be identified and assessed so as to afford them better protect. Although work has already been carried out and published by MEPA in 2003, further efforts need to be done.
Areas protected for landscape value – Malta
The Maltese landscape has an attractive and distinctive character and their protection and sustainable management has significant environmental, economic and social benefits. The natural and rural landscapes of the islands are dominated by karstic rock formations, Mediterranean-type flora and terraced agricultural fields. Humans have inhabited the islands for at least 7000 years, while natural processes have influenced the Maltese landscape character over time.
With respect to the designation of areas through national law, Malta has achieved a coverage of 28.5% of its land area and 35.5% of its Fisheries Management Zone. This implies the protection, management and planning of natural aspects and beyond. Some of the different national designations include: Area of Ecological Importance, Site of Scientific Importance, Area of High Landscape Value, Bird Sanctuary, Nature Reserve, Special Area of Conservation, Special Protection Area and Tree Protection Area.
Regarding those areas which form part of the EU Natura 2000 network, management plans or conservation orders have been published for the terrestrial sites, while conservation objectives and measures are being drafted for the marine sites. Such measures take into consideration ecological restoration, regulation of certain activities and public awareness initiatives, amongst others.
Areas of High Landscape Value (AHLV) have been designated under the provisions of the Development Planning Act in 1996, 2000 and 2006, and through the local planning process. During 2006, 5 local plans were approved, and together with the designation of Ghajn Barrani in Gozo, brought on board 42km2 of new AHLVs. The proportion of legally protected landscapes in the Maltese Islands is now 33% of total land area, almost 3 times more than in 2000. The newly protected areas reflect the findings of the Landscape Assessment Study, which had identified that over 51% of the Maltese Islands had high or very high landscape sensitivity. The total protected area identified as landscape is 105.69m2, which is the 33.45% of the total land area of the Maltese islands.
Landscape Diversity
Malta’s natural landscape is characterised by karstic rock and typical Mediterranean vegetation, which is mostly determined by its geomorphology, climate, biodiversity and different settlement patterns and practices, including agriculture.
The main landscape features are as follows:
Islands and Sea: the main landscape of the islands is the sea and is archipelago, with three main inhabited islands: Malta, Gozo and Comino, and several uninhabited islets of which the most notable ones, in order of decreasing size, are St Paul’s Island, Cominotto, Filfla and Fungus Rock.
Blue Lagoon, Comino
Geology: this includes the softer Globigerina Limestone with more gently sloping landscapes, particularly along the eastern and south-eastern coastal areas of Malta, and Upper Coralline Limestone cliffs and rdum characterising the northern and north-western regions. Blue Clay overlies the Globigerina Limestone and tends to form clay slopes flowing out over the underlying rock, whilst Greensand provides for coloured landscapes when attaining large thickness. The geology of Gozo is more varied than that of Malta, with more frequent outcrops of Blue Clay being a characteristic feature.
Gozo coast – Xlendi
Cliffs and boulder screes, known as rdum (plural: rdumijiet), which house unique rdum communities based on endemic plants and animals unique to the Maltese Islands.
Rifting in the vicinity of the Maltese Islands has resulted in alternate uplifting of various regions of the Maltese Islands. This has given the archipelago a tilt towards the north-east thus creating two main types of coasts. The low indented shoreline of the east is contrasted with the sheer, rectilinear coasts of west Malta. The highest point (253m) on the islands can be found at Dingli cliffs in south western Malta; while the eastern coastlines are drowned. This tilt of the archipelago is also responsible for the predominant north-eastern trend of drainage channels on Malta.
Cliffs of two types can be found along the Maltese archipelago, vertical plunging cliffs and rdum or coastal scree cliffs. Vertical plunging cliffs are formed from Lower Coralline limestone and Upper Coralline Limestone. These lack shore platforms at their feet due to the absence of mass movement processes and are probably tectonic in origin. The rdum or coastal scree cliffs occur when marls of Blue Clay formations are overlaid by upper coralline limestone. The unconsolidated Blue Clay are easily eroded by wave action. After torrential rains water percolates through the overlying limestone fissures resulting in the saturation of the clay. This causes the clay to become plastic and mudslides may occur. The Upper Coralline Limestone on top is undercut and rock falls also occur. A gradual cliff retreat occurs as a result of this. The rdum cliffs are common in the north western side of Malta due to the extensive Upper Coralline Limestone plateau found.
The north-east side of Malta and north of Gozo are lacking in cliff formations. The coasts here are more stable as the geological structure is mainly composed of Globigerina Limestone and Lower Coralline Limestone. Long tracts of low, rocky coastlines of corrosion are found instead. Pools and Lapis characterise this landscape of low lying rocky shoreline. The platforms are jagged especially when cut in Coralline Limestone. Paskoff mentions the two most significant weathering processes, chemical and biological, that prevail in the area. The physical process of abrasion seems to be mostly absent.
Several coastal platforms rising to different levels are found on this type of coast. Platforms in northern Gozo form where Globigerina limestone crops out. Large boulders dislodged by storm waves can be seen scattered on platforms only on exposed coasts. Notches are also found. Beach formation is restricted to the northern shores of the Malta. The lack of beaches means concentrated tourism threats to the rare ecosystems found on the pocket beaches of the Islands.
Ta’ Ċenċ cliffs, Gozo
Maltese Faults
Magħlaq Fault Face (Credit: Limestone Isles in a Crystal Sea: The Geology of the Maltese Islands)
Malta is crossed by two main fault systems representing the effects of two separate rifting episodes in the vicinity of the archipelago. The older of the two, the Victoria Lines Fault (Great Fault), trends SW to NE, while the Maghlaq Fault system trends approximately NW to SE along the southern coast of the island and has been responsible for the down throw of Filfla to sea level.
A system of horst and graben structures of east-northeast trend gives rise to a series of rifts and valleys north of the Victoria Lines Fault. No well-defined horst and graben systems occur south of the Victoria Lines Fault. Several circular subsidence structures are distributed throughout the islands. The origins of these structures are various, but are mainly associated with solution of limestone by percolating acidified ground water leading to roof collapse of subterranean or submarine caverns.
Structural map of the Maltese Islands (Credit: Limestone Isles in a Crystal Sea: The Geology of the Maltese Islands)
Maltese Caves
Trenhaile (1987), Paskoff (1985) and Pedley et al (2002) mention various types of karstic landforms that give the relatively short coastline of the Islands a variety of geomorphic features. The presence of partially or totally submerged karst caves influences the development of coastal scenery around the islands. Paskoff and Trenhaile (1987) mention semicircular coves or circular subsidence structures (see opposite figure) that are distributed throughout the islands. The origins of these structures are various, but are mainly associated with solution of limestone by percolating acidified ground water leading to roof collapse of subterranean or submarine caverns. Wave action during storms can also provoke roof collapse hence forming such coves. These are evident in the southern coast of Malta. The many inlets found are partially drowned valleys of subaerial erosion. Calanques mentioned by Paskoff (1985) are ‘coastal inlets which can be of a gorge-like’ nature. According to Paskoff and Sanlaville (1978) these calanques are fault controlled.
Tal-Mixta Cave, Gozo
A system of valleys, known as widien (singular: wied), which form an intricate network through which seasonal watercourses pass. Such widien are important natural flood-relief systems and provide one of the characteristic landscape features of the Maltese Islands, which are of relevance to both natural riparian communities, fields and agricultural settlements.
Garrigues, including phrygana: often collectively known as ix-xagħri in Maltese, are the most characteristic natural landscape present, typically characterised by low shrubs growing on coralline limestones and karst. The most relevant example is the Maltese phrygana, a habitat endemic to the Maltese Islands, hence known only from Malta which is based on endemic species.
Steppes and grasslands are also common on limestones and blue clay, particularly clay slopes, with Esparto grass and sulla. These are known in Maltese with various names depending on the geology and soils of the area, the type of habitat and species found, and the use of the area; names include amongst others: il-baqqigħat; il-barr; il-bragier(a); il-ħawli(ja); il-karst, il-marġ(a)/l-imrajjaġ/l-imruġ; il-mergħat/l-imriegħi; il-qortin/il-kordin/il-qrajten; ix-xagħri/ix-xagħra and iż-żrieżaq tat-tafal.
Agriculture and parcelling. Due to Malta’s geomorphology and small size, most of the agricultural holdings are small and surrounded by traditional dry stone walls, often referred to as rubble wall or ħitan tas-sejjieħ in Maltese. of the islands. These walls provide against erosion, but are also important for many plant and animal species.
Fortifications, bastions and urban settlements have also created particular landscapes, and gave Malta the name of ‘island fortress’. This is particularly noted considering the various defensive structures in the Maltese Islands, of which Valletta and the Three Cities, Mdina, the Gozo Citadel, the so-called de Redin towers and the Victoria Lines are the most notable examples.
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