Subsidiary Legislation 549.176 – Extended Producer Responsibility (Fishing Gear Containing Plastic) Regulations, published by Legal Notice 131 of 2025 [download], establishes the extended producer responsibility (EPR) obligations for producers of fishing gear containing plastic.
Under these regulations, producers of fishing gear containing plastic are required to:
Join an authorised Producer Responsibility Organisation (PRO) for Fishing Gear containing Plastic, and
Register with the Environment and Resources Authority (ERA) and renew such registration as necessary.
These regulations give effect to national obligations under Directive (EU) 2019/904 (Single-Use Plastics Directive), particularly aiming to reduce the environmental impact of abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear.
Application Forms:
Registration & Renewal Form for Producers:
Form M – Registration Form as a Producer of Fishing Gear containing Plastic Form
Producer Responsibility Organisations (PRO) form:
Application to operate a PRO for Fishing Gear containing Plastic. Form
Terrestrial habitats are based mainly on vegetation types; these are grouped into three main categories:
Mediterranean communities: Part of the succession sequence towards climax communities;
Human-linked communities: Owe their existence to anthropogenic activities;
Other communities: Either specialised to occupy particular habitats, or occupy habitats that are rare in the Islands, or are relics from a previous ecological regime.
The process of succession
Ecosystems are formed by the interactions between a community of living organisms and the physical environment that surrounds them. These ecosystems undergo ecological succession in response to changes in environmental conditions; this is a natural process of change over time that is brought about by progressive replacement of one plant or animal community with another. This process starts with what is called as the “pioneer community”, and eventually leads to the development of a stable and mature community, referred to as the “climax community”. The process of succession can halt at a pre-climax stage when some factor is limiting; such as when the organism needed to bring about the necessary changes that lead to the creation of the following community is absent. Apart from biotic factors (living), limiting factors may also be abiotic (non-living), such as lack of water.
Succession can be of two types:
a) Primary succession: Begins when pioneer species, like mosses and lichens, colonise barren substrate, such as rock, sand or soil, which has never before supported any vegetation.
b) Secondary succession: Occurs in areas where natural vegetation has been disturbed or destroyed. The latter type is generally less species rich.
Natural habitats in the Maltese Islands appear in different stages of ecological succession. In certain localities, it is easy to differentiate between these stages, though in most cases, the habitats occur as a mosaic of the different stages of ecological succession. There are six principal stages of ecological succession in the Maltese Islands; these are relative to Mediterranean type vegetation.
Habitats that form part of the process of succession:
Steppe (l-isteppa)
Garrigue (ix-xagħri)
Phrygana (il-frigana)
Pre-desert scrub (il-ġmiem)
Maquis (il-makkja)
Woodland (il-bosk)
Examples of specialised habitat types:
Saline marshlands (bwar salmastri)
Freshwater rockpools (l-għadajjar tal-ilma ħelu)
Sand dunes (l-għaram tar-ramel)
Valley watercourses & riparian communities (il-widien)
Caves (l-għerien)
Cliffs & screes (l-irdumijiet u s-sisien)
1. Steppe (l-isteppa)
Steppe is considered as the first stage in the ecological succession process. It is derived from maquis and garrigue as a result of some form of degradation, such as that caused by fire or animal grazing. It is widespread, and is characterised by herbaceous plants, especially grasses, such as:
(i) Umbellifers such as the fennel (MT: il-bużbież; SN: Foeniculum vulgare), the Maltese ferule (MT: il-ferla; SN: Ferula melitensis) and the wild carrot (MT: iz-zunnarija salvaġġa; SN: Daucus carota);
(ii) Legumes such as the common vetch (MT: il-ġilbiena sewda; SN: Vicia sativa subsp. nigra), and;
(iii) Tuberous or bulbous species such as the southern star of Bethlehem (MT: ħalib it-tajr żgħir; SN: Ornithogalum narbonense).
This habitat is generally devoid of shrubs, and is mainly comprised of annuals, that is, plants that live up to one year. During the dry season, this habitat type appears dry and impoverished because most plant species will, at the time, exist in the form of seeds. In contrast, the wet season brings about a change in this habitat type, which results in steppe being entirely covered by a large variety of herbaceous plants.
One also finds other types of steppe locally, including some natural ones. These are formed through climatic factors, and include the rocky steppe and the clay slope steppe.
Steppes may also be characterised by the common awn-grass (MT: in-nixxief tal-isteppa; SN: Stipa capensis) and thistles; such as the clustered carline thistle (MT: is-sajtun; SN: Carlina involucrata) and the Mediterranean thistle (MT: ix-xewk abjad; SN: Galactites tomentosa). Geophytes, such as the asphodel (MT: il-berwieq; SN: Asphdelus aestivus ) and the seaside squill (MT: l-għansar; SN: Drimia pancration), are also encountered. Other forms of steppic communities may develop on abandoned agricultural land.
2. Garrigue (ix-xagħri)
The second stage in ecological succession is garrigue. It is characterised by limestone rocky ground with a rugged surface, known as karst, and is heavily exposed to the brute force of the elements. Garrigue is typified by low-lying, usually aromatic and spiny woody shrubs that are resistant to drought and exposure. This type of habitat appears desolate, and is often referred to as wasteland. Nevertheless, it is probably the most species-diverse habitat in the Maltese Islands, and is of great importance not only to biodiversity, but also to ecosystem services.
Garrigue dominated with Mediterranean thyme and sea squill
Various types of garrigue occur; such as the thermo-Mediterranean scrub habitats, characterised by the tree spurge (MT: it-tengħud tas-siġra; SN: Euphorbia dendroides) and African wolfsbane (MT: is-siġra tal-ħarir; SN: Periploca angustifolia). The thermo-Mediterranean scrub communities are sometimes referred to as high garrigues since they usually include shrubs that exceed 0.5m, growing up to 2m in height. Additionally, some garrigue types are very rare, such as those based on species of sage (MT: is-salvja; SN: Phlomis fruticosa) and rockroses (MT: iċ-ċistu; SN: Fumana spp.), and rosemary (MT: il-klin; SN: Rosmarinus officinalis).
Mediterranean thyme
Honey bee
On the other hand, the most frequent garrigue species is the Mediterranean thyme (MT: is-sagħtar; SN: Thymbra capitata). It is known from most types of garrigue, and is an important food source for many species, including the Maltese honey bee (MT: in-naħla ta’ Malta; SN: Apis mellifera ruttneri).
In addition to the above, numerous endemic, threatened, rare and protected species thrive in garrigue habitats, such as the:
two endemic door-snail species (id-dussies tal-irdum; id-dussies ta’ Malta; SN: Lampedusa imitatrix and L. melitensis).
3. Maquis (il-makkja)
Maquis is the stage following that of the pre-desert scrub in the ecological succession. It is usually characterised by small trees and large shrubs, consisting mostly of an evergreen shrub community, reaching a height of up to 5m, often more. It occurs along the sides of valleys, along slopes and other areas, which are inaccessible to man, and relatively sheltered from the wind. Various types of maquis occur, such as those based upon the Myrtle (MT: ir-riħan; SN: Myrtus communis ), and the national tree of Malta, the sandarac gum tree (MT: is-siġra tal-għargħar; SN: Tetraclinis articulata), both of which are very rare and threatened.
Typical trees that populate such habitat include the:
Carob Tree (MT: il-ħarruba; SN: Ceratonia siliqua);
Italian lords-and-ladies (MT: il-garni; SN: Arisarum vulgare).
Maquis
4. Mediterranean woodland (il-bosk)
Mediterranean woodlands are characterised by sclerophyllous (hard-leaved, evergreen) trees with an undergrowth of smaller shrubs. This is the highest type of vegetation that can develop in the Mediterranean climatic regime, in other words, the climax of the ecological succession. This habitat type develops from maquis, in the absence of disturbance caused by man.
In Malta, this habitat was virtually exterminated, following colonisation by man and through the grazing effects of introduced sheep and goats. Nowadays, only a few remnants are found in a handful of areas, with small copses of the holm oak (MT: il-balluta; SN: Quercus ilex) at Il-Ballut tal-Wardija, Il-Ballut tal-Imġiebaħ, Ta’ Baldu/Wied Ħażrun, and Il-Bosk near Buskett. Remnants are dominated by the holm oak and the Aleppo pine (MT: iż-żnuber; SN: Pinus halepensis). Some of the holm oaks are estimated to be 500 to 900 years old.
Il-Buskett, which is located on the western-south-western coast of Malta, is a semi-natural woodland where trees, namely the Aleppo Pine, together with the holm oak, the olive tree and the carob tree (il-ħarruba) regenerate naturally. This area is also important for many wood-associated species, including invertebrates, mycoflora, and birds.
Il-Buskett woodland
Apart from the above mentioned habitats that form part of the process of succession, there are other specialised habitat types, each supporting species that are mostly confined to specific areas.
5. Saline marshlands (bwar salmastri)
Saline marshlands are transitional areas that form at the interface between the marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. Saline marshlands are dynamic systems and undergo annual cycles of changes in salinity. The salt content changes depending on rainfall, whereas in winter the saline content is low due to a diluting effect of the rain, in summer, the salt content is more concentrated as water levels drop. Salinity in the salt marsh also depends on how close this is to sea and the influx of seawater into the system.
During winter, the Maltese coastal marshes are characterised by a muddy substratum on which a pool of brackish water is collected. Plants found in this habitat type must withstand changes in salinity and therefore have adapted to such conditions, by adopting special structural and physiological features. For instance, certain plants, such as the golden samphire (MT: ix-xorbett; SN: Limbarda crithmoides), have fleshy leaves that can store freshwater. Others, such as the shrubby glasswort (MT: l-almeridja tal-blat; SN: Arthrocnemum macrostachyum) and the twiggy glasswort (MT: l-almeridja; SN: Salicornia ramosissima), have very small, fleshy leaves that envelop the stem, in order to prevent water loss. Such plants appear to be made up of segments. Tamarisk species, on the other hand, are able to concentrate salt in their leaves, to eliminate the salt when the leaves are shed.
Vegetation patterns are observed in saline marshlands that reflect differences in chemical and physical conditions. Areas that remain dry or moist harbour those plants that are not aquatic, such as the smooth-leaved saltwort (MT: il-ħaxixa tal-irmied; SN: Salsola soda). Shallow parts of the salt marsh that hold a small volume of water for several days, are colonised by plants, which although not aquatic, are still able to withstand short periods of inundation until the water dries up or evaporates. Deeper areas, which remain filled with water for longer periods, only support aquatic and semi-aquatic plants. Plants characteristic of saline marshlands are the:
Common reed (MT: qasbet ir-riħ; SN: Phragmites australis).
Some coastal wetlands appear to be transitional between freshwater wetlands and saline marshlands, in the sense that, the biotic assemblages they support consist of species typical of both freshwater and saline habitats. Such wetlands have been termed ‘transitional coastal wetlands’, such as when wetlands arise when rainwater collects in depressions close to the sea, such as at l-Għadira s-Safra.
Salini saline marshland
6. Rainwater rock pools (l-għadajjar tal-ilma ħelu)
The movement or flow of acidified water derived from precipitation and runoff, leads to the gradual erosion of limestone substratum and the eventual formation of hollows or kamenitzas (singular kamenitza). The latter collect rainwater in winter, forming shallow freshwater rock pools, which provide a suitable habitat for a number of rare species. Freshwater rock pools are ephemeral, that is, last for only a short period, because in summer these dry up completely and may become colonised by terrestrial vegetation. Therefore, the ecological cycle of this habitat spans over a year and is divided into two stages, the:
a) wet stage occurs in winter when the kamenitzas become filled with rainwater, and;
b) dry stage occurs in summer, when the kamenitzas remain dry.
Species that are specialised to this habitat type remain dormant in the soil during the dry stage, and emerge during the wet stage. Other species move out of the rock pool, when this is in the dry state, and return when conditions become favourable. Plants and algae that inhabit freshwater rock pools include the Maltese waterwort (MT: l-elatine; SN: Elatine gussonei) and the Maltese horned-pondweed (MT: il-ħarira tal-ilma; SN: Zanichellia melitensis).
The duration of how long the rock pool remains with water determines the species richness of that particular rock pool. Several aquatic insects are also found in this habitat type and namely include microcrustaceans, such as the common copepod (MT: il-kopepodu tal-għadajjar; SN: Cyclops vulgaris), freshwater shrimps such as the fairy shrimp (MT: il-gamblu tal-għadajjar; SN: Branchipus schaefferi) and the water flea (MT: iż-żagħrun tal-ġwiebi; SN: Daphnia pulicaria). Certain microorganisms that occur in this habitat are extremely rare, such as the tadpole shrimp (MT: il-gamblu tal-elmu; SN: Triops cancriformis).
Temporary freshwater rockpools
7. Sand dunes (l-għaram tar-ramel)
Sand dunes are dynamic systems that form by a slow process of accretion, that is, the build-up of sand because of natural wave action. Sandy beaches are backed by dune systems, which provide an essential role in the stability, as well as in the defence of coastal communities. The formation of sand dunes depends on the sand that is carried inland by wind from the beach. Subsequently, sand is deposited and trapped upon encountering clumps of vegetation or some other form of obstacle.
Dune vegetation is adapted to the harsh conditions present in this type of habitat. Such conditions include high temperatures, dryness, occasional inundation by seawater and accumulation of sand. Plant adaptations include extensive root systems that provide efficient anchorage in the porous and mobile substrate and other distinctive morphological features, such as fleshy leaves to limit water loss, and the presence of short white hairs to help in temperature regulation.
Vegetation type changes across the dune system with distance from the beach, forming a typical zonation pattern. Maltese dunes, in the present day and age, may be described according to the zonation pattern.
a) Embryo dune
The most seaward zone of the dune is called the embryo dune. Perennial plants such as the sea rocket (MT: kromb il-baħar; SN: Cakile maritima) are first encountered; these are pioneers of the dune which enable the establishment of other plants. The sea rocket is also encountered on the drift line of the beach, that is, the highest extreme that waves reach leaving a line of organic debris. Other plants found colonising the embryo dune are the sand dropwort (MT: in-niġem tar-ramel; SN: Sporobolus pungens) and the prickly saltwort (MT: il-ħaxixa tal-irmied xewwikija; SN: Salsola kali).
b) Mobile dune
Behind the embryo dune lies the mobile dune, which is characterised by a low dune that is sparsely vegetated by plants such as the sand couch grass (MT: is-sikrana tar-ramel; SN: Elytrigia juncea) and the sea holly (MT: xewk ir-ramel; SN: Eryngium maritimum).
c) Semi-consolidated dune
The mobile dune is followed by the semi-consolidated dune, which is characterised by the carnation spurge (MT: tengħud tax-xatt; SN: Euphorbia terracina), the sea daffodil (MT: il-pankrazju tal-baħar; SN: Pancratium maritimum) and the sea fennel (MT: bużbież il-baħar; SN: Echinophora spinosa).
d) Fixed dune
Following the semi-consolidated dune, one comes across the fixed dune. This zone is vegetated with a dense thicket of salt-tolerant shrubs, such as the grey birdsfoot trefoil (MT: għantux tal-blat; SN: Lotus cytisoides) and the southern scabious (MT: il-kuxxinetti; SN: Scabiosa maritima).
Maltese sand dunes also have characteristic invertebrate fauna, namely nematodes (roundworms), annelids (segmented worms), several insects, amphipods (shrimp-like crustaceans) and isopods (sessile eyes crustaceans).
Over the years, many sand dunes have been lost and nowadays, this habitat is extremely restricted in the Maltese Islands. Presently, there are only few dunes that persist, and this habitat type is amongst the rarest and most threatened of local ecosystems.
Ir-Ramla sand dune
8. Valley watercourses & riparian communities (il-widien)
Valley watercourses are one of the most species-rich habitats on a national scale. Yet, they are considered as one of the most endangered habitats in the Maltese Islands. The biotic (living) communities of valleys can be divided into two groups:
i. those growing on valley sides, and;
ii. those growing along the watercourse.
In gently sloping valleys, the watercourse community is similar to that of the valley sides, whereas in steep-sided valleys there is a clear distinction between communities along the watercourse and those vegetating valley-sides. Where the terrain permits, the valley sides are terraced and cultivated. The construction of man-made dams in certain valley systems has intentionally retarded the water flow for irrigation purposes. Such dams have created new freshwater habitats where varieties of aquatic and semi-aquatic species thrive.
The watercourse community is by nature dynamic, and its integrity depends on the amount and frequency of rainfall as well as other abiotic factors, such as the rate of siltation. Valleys are dry for some months of the year and water only flows during the wet season. However, some local valleys drain springs originating from the perched aquifers and retain some surface water even during the dry season.
In general, the greater part of local plant and animal species reliant of water during some part of their life cycle are found in valley watercourses. Various annual and perennial plants colonise the watercourse, some of which are rare on a national scale because of the restricted distribution of their habitat. An example is the very rare perennial willow-leaved knotgrass (MT: il-persikarja tal-Baħrija; SN: Persicaria salicifolia).
Plants that grow in watercourses include herbaceous perennials, such as the water plantain (MT: il-biżbula tal-ilma; SN: Alisma plantago-aquatica) and the water speedwell (MT: il-veronika tal-ilma; SN: Veronica anagallis-aquatica). Perennials, unlike annual plants, are able to withstand periods of dryness. Watercourse plants require a good underground system of roots or rhizomes for anchorage to the unstable waterlogged substrate of watercourses. Watercourse vegetation mainly comprises grasses, sedges and rushes, while algae thrive in ‘open water’, like species of Spirogyra and Zygnema. One of the most common plants to colonise valleys is the giant reed (MT: il-qasba l-kbira; SN: Arundo donax). Encroachment by this reed results in reduction of water current; however, when the water passes through the rhizomes of this plant, the water is filtered from nutrients. The giant reed is often replaced by the common reed (MT: qasbet ir-riħ; SN: Phragmites australis) at the mouth of valley watercourses where freshwater feeds into the sea.
Remnants of riparian woodlands, located on the bank of a watercourse, still exist along a few watercourses where water flow is abundant. Examples of trees growing along watercourses include the rare white poplar (MT: is-siġra tal-luq; SN: Populus alba), the Mediterranean willow (MT: iż-żafżafa ż-żgħira; SN: Salix pedicellata) and the grey-leaved elm (MT: is-siġra tan-nemus; SN: Ulmus canescens). Different subtypes occur in different localities.
In areas close to the sea the southern Mediterranean riparian thickets occur. The main native species are the African Tamarisk (MT: il-bruka SN: Tamarisk africana) and the Chaste Tree (MT: is-siġra tal-virgi; SN: Vitex agnus-castus), with the Oleander (MT: id-difla; SN: Nerium oleander) being very rare in the wild.
Watercourses provide habitat and food to various animals, the most well-known being the protected, only amphibian found in Malta, the painted frog (MT: iż-żrinġ; SN: Discoglossus pictus pictus), and the legally protected, endemic Maltese freshwater crab (MT: il-qabru; SN: Potamon fluviatile lanfrancoi). A huge variety of insect and other invertebrate fauna also thrive in local valleys, such as dragonflies and damselflies, semi-aquatic grasshoppers, mayflies, aquatic and semi-aquatic beetles, such as the large predacious diving beetle (MT: il-wirdiena tal-ilma; SN: Dysticus circumflexus), water-associating flies, bees and wasps, small crustaceans and many others. Some of these are only found in these habitats and some are only known from one or a few localities in the Maltese Islands.
9. Caves (l-għerien)
Bats roosting
In spite of the calcareous nature of Malta’s rocks, deep caves are not frequent in the Maltese Islands. Since local caves are inhabited by organisms which are adapted to live in such habitats, they have a very restricted distribution. The best-known cave dwellers are bats but there are many other species, particularly invertebrates. Moreover, a number of these species are endemic to the Maltese Islands and so, are of great scientific interest.
10. Cliffs & screes (l-irdumijiet u s-sisien)
Locally, cliffs and screes are found mainly along southern and western shores of Malta, Gozo and Comino. They represent an important natural habitat because they harbour many interesting species of flora and fauna, including endemic forms.
Rupestral plant communities consist mainly of halophytic shrubs, comprising, amongst others, of endemic species that are restricted only to this habitat type, such as the Maltese cliff-orache (SN: MT: il-bjanka tal-irdum; SN: Atriplex lanfrancoi [=Cremnophyton lanfrancoi]) and the national plant of Malta, the Maltese rock-centaury (MT: widnet il-baħar; SN: Palaeocyanus crassifolius [=Cheirolophus crassifolius]), both belonging to monospecific genera. The cliffs in Gozo support rupestral species that are not present in Malta, namely the Maltese hyoseris (MT: iż-żigland ta’ Għawdex; SN: Hyoseris frutescens) and the Maltese everlasting (MT: is-sempreviva ta’ Għawdex; SN: Helichrysum melitense). Plants found on cliffs need to be resilient to harsh abiotic conditions, such as lack of water, strong winds, sea spray and little soil. Nonetheless, the inaccessibility of cliffs resulted in relatively little interference by man.
Cliffs and screes
Cliffs provide shelter and an ideal breeding habitat for many bird species, such as the:
The Maltese National bird, the blue rock-thrush (MT: il-merill; SN: Monticola solitarius).
Blue rock-thrush (male)
The south-western cliffs of mainland Malta provide a vital habitat to one of the rarest animals in the Maltese Islands, the Maltese door-snail (MT: id-dussies tal-irdum; SN: Lampedusa melitensis). Other rare endemic snails also have their distribution restricted to only a few cliff-side localities, such as the Filfola door-snail (MT: id-dussies ta’ Filfla; SN: Lampedusa imitatrix gattoi) and the Għar Lapsi top-snail (MT: iż-żugraga tal-irdum; SN: Trochoidea ghar lapsi).
Every year substantial amounts of lubricating oils become unfit for the use they were originally intended and due to their hazardous properties, pose a significant threat to natural ecosystems. On the other hand, waste oils have a very high recovery potential and therefore represent a valuable resource if properly managed. Hence the need to collect waste oils separately, so as to avoid any environmental contamination and channel them to the most appropriate waste management alternatives.
The management of waste oils in Malta is governed by the Waste Regulations, which provide for the separate collection and the treatment of such waste in accordance with the principles of the Waste Management Hierarchy and the protection of human health and the environment.
Ship breaking activities across the globe have been a cause for concern for several years due to the negative impacts caused on tidal beaches as well as the high mortality rates associated with the dismantling of large vessels. As a result, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) developed the Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships (more commonly known as the Hong Kong Convention) to improve the health and safety aspects of current ship breaking practices. The Hong Kong Convention, although adopted in 2009 has not yet entered into force. Regulation (EC) No 1257/2013 on ship recycling (known as the Ship Recycling Regulation) aims to reduce the negative impacts linked to the recycling of ships flying the flag of Member States of the Union and was also implemented to facilitate the early ratification of the Hong Kong Convention by European Union Member States and third countries.
The Ship Recycling Regulation does not apply to:
(i) Any warships, naval auxiliary, or other ships owned or operated by a state and used, for the time being, only on government non-commercial service;
(ii) Ships of less than 500 gross tonnage (GT);
(iii) Ships operating throughout their life only in waters subject to the sovereignty or jurisdiction of the Member State whose flag the ship is flying.
The Ship Recycling Regulation establish requirements, which ships and ship recycling facilities have to fulfil in order to ensure that the recycling of vessels takes place in an environmentally sound and safe manner. The said Regulation prohibits the use of certain hazardous materials on board ships and requires any EU-flagged ship going for dismantling to have an on-board inventory of hazardous materials (IHM), including information on the quantities of such materials as well as their location, with a view to facilitate recycling of vessels.
Seagrasses, as the name implies, are closely related to plants on land, and have roots, stems, leaves, flowers and seeds. Seagrass meadows, are an important habitat, and are afforded protection through several legal instruments.
They offer/constitute important feeding and nursery areas for various marine animals, and are crucial in supporting marine biodiversity. Seagrasses also stabilise the sediment, which reduces erosion and wave and current energy, protecting the coastline and beaches. They also absorb nutrients from runoff and cycle nutrients into the water, improving water clarity and quality, and are an important carbon sink, helping to combat climate change.
These meadows are sensitive to anchoring, overfishing and pollution. One should not anchor, moor or sit on seagrass meadows.
Algal communities are found growing on reefs, in caves, along rocky shores and in the vicinity of seagrass meadows. The characteristic species vary, depending on the conditions present. For example, well-lit areas on gently sloping rocky shores support macroalgal communities with belts of brown algae such as Cystoseira species that form three-dimensional canopies, whereas shaded rocks are inhabited by calcareous red algae (Corallinales).
Several species of the genus Cystoseira and Sargassum are under strict protection, therefore they cannot be damaged or picked.
The sheer vertical cliffs along the southwestern coast are favoured by the red alga Lithophyllum byssoides, which form concretions in the form of platforms, also referred to as algal rims or ‘trottoirs’.
Reefs are an important habitat that are very diverse in terms of the communities they support. They are considered ‘biodiversity hotspots’ and host a variety of different species, including corals, sponges, molluscs, crustaceans and fish.
Geogenic reefs are made of geological features, such as boulders or rocks that create a three-dimensional structure. There are a variety of coastal reefs, such as vertical rock walls (the underwater part of coastal cliffs), sheer or stepped drop-offs (underwater cliffs), rocky shoals and boulder fields. In deeper waters, geogenic reefs may take the form of escarpments and seamounts.
Species growing on reefs are fragile and sensitive, and therefore they should not be touched. In view of this, they are afforded protection through several legal instruments.
Biogenic reefs are concretions formed from dead or living organisms, which provide a surface where other species can live. Malta’s offshore waters are home to such reef habitats, including diverse deep-sea communities of cold water corals at depths of 300 – 1000m and a fossilised stony sponge reef, at depths of around 300m off the North coast of Gozo.
Many of areas in which these deep sea habitats are have been designated as marine protected areas due to the presence of these reefs, while a number of the cold water coral species (Cnidaria) that form these reefs are also strictly protected in themselves, such as the Smooth Black Coral (Leiopathes glaberrima), Zigzag Coral (Madrepora occulata), Red Coral (Corallium rubrum) and Stony Coral/Deep Water Coral (Lophelia pertusa).
English Deep-water mixed reef assemblage including black coral, red coral and sponges
Maltese Sikka tal-baħar fond li tinkludi qroll iswed, qroll aħmar, u sponoż.
Caves around the Maltese Islands have been formed over time through wave action and geological processes. So called ‘karst caves’ and ‘sinkholes’ along the coast create impressive landscapes on land and under water.
The environmental conditions within underwater caves vary depending on the size and structure of the caves, the extent to which they are submerged, the exposure to waves and currents, as well as changes in temperature, salinity and light. These varying conditions will in turn affect which communities of living organisms are found within.
Sea caves harbour communities of marine invertebrates and algae near the mouth of the cave. These communities change along the gradients of light intensity and turbulence occurring from the entrance to the inner parts of the cave. The conditions of low light and temperature found in caves can be similar to deep-water habitats, so that organisms usually found in deeper waters often inhabit caves, even in relatively shallow water.
Species growing on cave walls, such as sponges and bryozoans, are fragile and sensitive, and therefore they should not be touched. In view of this, caves are afforded protection through several legal instruments.
A number of deep-sea caves have also been discovered at depths of 200 to 780m, which are thought to have been formed a very long time ago, possibly during the Messinian age 5-7million years ago, when the Mediterranean Sea was dry in many places.
Sediment habitats are the most widespread type of habitat found on the ocean floor. These habitats range from boulders and cobbles, through pebbles and shingle, coarse sands, sands, fine sands, muds, and mixed sediments.
Although these seabed habitats often appear barren, they are in fact home to many benthic (bottom-living) species that live in, or on, the sediments, including molluscs, crustaceans and fish. For this reason, these habitats are often important fisheries grounds.
English Sea pen Pennatula phosphorea on deep sea muddy bottom
Maltese Pjuma tal-baħar Pennatula phosphorea fuq tajn tal-baħar fond
Rhodolith accumulations are a particular sedimentary habitat, that have been recorded in several sites off Malta’s eastern coast at depths of 50 m to 100 m. Rhodoliths are colourful, unattached nodules formed by calcareous red algae, which may take a number of different forms, ranging from compact spherical nodules to ones with twiglike branches. Accumulations can range from sparse nodules occurring individually to dense beds. Due to this complex architecture, this habitat supports a rich biodiversity and in Maltese is referred to as ‘ramel ħaj’ which translates to ‘living sand’.
Malta’s marine Natura 2000 network encompasses 18 sites and covers over 4100 km2, equivalent to more than 35% of Malta’s Fisheries Management Zone, and was established over a period of 10 years, for the conservation of important habitats and species.
The network comprises Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), designated for the protection of marine habitats and species pursuant to the EU Habitats Directive, and Special Protected Areas (SPAs) designated for the protection of seabirds under the EU Birds Directive.
Between 2008 and 2012, five areas – covering about 190 km2 in total – were identified, mainly to protect beds of the Neptune seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) – an important habitat for coastal biodiversity. Three of these areas also host the protected sea snail – the Maltese topshell (Steromphala nivosa).
In 2016, the number of protected zones was increased to cover more than 3400 km2 as a result of the LIFE Migrate and LIFE+ Malta Seabird projects, which identified sites that are important for the loggerhead turtle (Carretta carretta), the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), and three seabirds that breed in the Maltese Islands: the Scopoli’s Shearwater (Calonectris diomedea), the Yelkouan Shearwater (Puffinus yelkouan) and the European Storm Petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus).
In 2018, the network was extended as a result of the LIFE BaĦAR for N2K project, which led to a further three inshore and five offshore areas being proposed for the protection of cave and reef habitats: the three inshore areas and three of the offshore areas were extensions of existing MPAs, while the other two offshore areas were new sites.
The datasheets and maps of the marine Natura 2000 sites can be found here.
Management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) should be geared at improving or maximising the contribution of the sites to the maintenance or achievement of Favourable Conservation Status of the habitats and species listed in the Habitats Directive and the protection of seabirds in accordance with the Birds Directive. For this purpose, ‘conservation objectives’ need to be set to guide management processes and enable measurement of progress towards achievement of the overall objectives of the two Directives.
A conservation objective is defined as “the specification of the overall target for the species and/or habitat types for which a site is designated in order for it to contribute to maintaining or reaching favourable conservation status”. While Favourable Conservation Status is defined at the level of the natural range of the habitat or species, management related to the contribution of the site to the achievement of such objective needs to be based on site-specific objectives that consider the ecological functions of the protected areas.
Conservation measures are then developed to achieve these objectives. The measures have the scope of managing activities that can exert pressure on these habitats and species, as well as addressing knowledge gaps that are of relevance for the management of these areas.
An initial consultation was carried out by the Environment and Resources Authority in 2019 as part of the process to define the conservation objectives and measures for the management of all of Malta’s MPAs. The proposed conservation objectives and measures were issued for public consultation on 10th July 2021 – 5th September 2021. The Conservation Objections and Measures were subsequently revised, taking into consideration the feedback received from stakeholders, general public, and the European Commission.
The Conservation Objectives and Conservation Measures were formally approved and published in January 2023.
A number of measures addressing pressures in MPAs have also been included in the MSFD Programme of Measures.
Alien species may be introduced into a new environment either intentionally or unintentionally. Should such species manage to survive, reproduce and spread throughout its new territory it could cause harm to the environment, human health or the economy. The most cost-effective and environmentally desirable action against invasive alien species (IAS) is preventing such species from entering the natural environment. Preventive measures for intentional introductions could include restrictions on their import, movement or use; the undertaking of risk assessments, and having adequate border controls.
Balloon vine, tuffieħ ir-riħ
On the other hand, unintentional introductions (which may involve escapes, contaminants, stowaways or hitchhikers) are much harder and challenging to prevent. The best way of preventing such introductions is through the identification of their pathways of introduction and spread, and addressing such means of introduction. In line with the provisions of the EU IAS Regulations, ERA has drafted an action plan to address pathways of unintentional introduction and spread for invasive alien species of Union concern.
Despite, having appropriate preventive measures in place it is not always possible to avert the introduction of invasive alien species. The detection of introduced species at an early stage of establishment is considered to be of essence as this increases the chances of eradication.
To this end, ERA adapted the Invasive Alien Species in Europe app to the local Maltese environment with detailed information and photos of the IAS of European and local concern, making it possible for anyone to capture images of these species and submit a report including location and any relevant complementary information, using their own mobile phones’ GPS system and camera. ERA urges the public to start using this app which will help win the battle against invasive alien species not only in Malta, but also in Europe in general.
The public is therefore encouraged to report to ERA on the locations of invasive alien species of EU or national concern that are detected in the environment.
In order to safeguard Malta’s rich biodiversity, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) was launched for adoption on 12th December 2012. The national strategy defines a comprehensive framework to safeguard Malta’s biodiversity over the period 2012-2020. It includes measures to address the issue of invasive alien species (IAS), and to maintain or improve the conservation status of threatened and/or protected native species.
Indeed, Target 9 of Malta’s NBSAP aims to prevent, as far as practical, the introduction and establishment of new IAS and identifies and priorities those invasive species which are established. Instead, measures BI2 and BI4 of the NBSAP identify the need to set up a systematic and coherent National Strategy on Invasive Alien Species and the publication of National Codes of Good Practice on Invasive Alien Species, respectively; these have been issued for public consultation in 2018.
Century plants being removed by ERA: before (left), after (right)
There are three options on how to control the spread of IAS:
eradication;
containment, or;
control.
Eradication is the favoured approach; however, it is only practical when the invasion is at its early stages, that is, when the populations are small and isolated. On the other hand, both control (which reduces the presence of the invader) and containment (which limits its further spread) aid in addressing larger invasions. Nonetheless, the latter two approaches require indefinite investments of time, effort and money to keep the invader at bay.
A well-planned eradication programme is arduous and lengthy. It should consider various aspects, amongst which:
habitat conditions and requirements;
repeated interventions;
resource availability;
regular monitoring, as well as;
the possibility of future invasions.
In collaboration with Ambjent Malta, ERA is implementing the management plans for Natura 2000 protected areas (Għadira s-Safra, Comino, Majjistral Park, etc.), and therefore addressing various actions aimed to remove IAS, such as century plant (MT: l-agave; SN: Agave spp.), devil’s backbone (MT: N/A; SN: Kalanchoe daigremontiana), kaffir fig (MT: xuxett San Ġwann; SN: Carpobrotus spp.), acacias (MT: l-akaċja; SN: Acacia spp.), giant reed (MT: il-qasba kbira; SN: Arundo donax), water hyacinth (MT: N/A; SN: Eichhornia crassipes), rats (MT: il-firien; SN: Rattus spp.), etc.
For implementation and research to be effective in both policy making and control of alien species, it is important to raise awareness and understand the distribution of alien species, their invasive potential and prioritise accordingly. The ‘IAS in Europe’ app facilitates the dissemination of information, surveillance, which enables the adoption of efficient measures for prevention as well as early detection and control, leading to reduction of ecological and economical damages that IAS may cause. ERA urges the public to start using this app which will help win the battle against invasive alien species not only in Malta, but also in Europe in general.
The Maltese Islands harbour a diverse array of native species, a number of which are found nowhere else in the world. Such species are termed as ‘endemic’. They contribute significantly to Malta’s natural heritage. Some endemic species are also critically endangered since they require specific conditions and habitats that result from geographical isolation and long-term evolution.
Levantine frog
Due to their insular nature, the Maltese Islands are particularly vulnerable to bio-invasions. Over the years, several alien species have been introduced in Malta; some accidentally but others intentionally, even with the misconception that these would improve local biodiversity. While only a few of the introduced alien species reach an invasive status, the latter can have considerable environmental and socio-economic impacts.
Cape sorrel
For instance, the kaffir fig (MT: xuxett San Ġwann; SN: Carpobrotus spp.) and the very common Cape sorrel (MT: il-ħaxixa Ingliża; SN: Oxalis pes-caprae) are very prolific species that literally carpet whole areas, smothering local species in the process. Perhaps a more tangible example is that of the red palm weevil (MT: il-bumunqar aħmar; SN: Rhynchophorus ferrugineus), which decimated thousands of palm trees across the Maltese Islands; the nuisance and health issues associated with the introduction of the Asian tiger mosquito (MT: in-nemusa tigra; SN: Aedes albopictus), or the introduced species of Levantine frog (MT: il-qorru; SN: Pelophylax bedriagae), which directly competes with the local painted frog (MT: iż-żrinġ; SN: Discoglossus pictus pictus).
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